The Analytical Theory of Heat Classic Reprint Joseph Fourier 9781332522484 Books
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Excerpt from The Analytical Theory of Heat
Each of the coemcients is a definite integral. We have in general +1 ff; Wham). F drf(z)cosw, f_ dz F(z) am is.
We thus form the general theorem, which is one of the chief elements of our analysis.
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The Analytical Theory of Heat Classic Reprint Joseph Fourier 9781332522484 Books
The Catholic Chemist, Antoine Lavoisier (1734 - 1794), was truly a revolutionary researcher and one of the first to come out completely from the ranks of Alchemy. Lavoisier continued to propagate and encourage for a systematic and uniform chemical language like precursors like Robert Boyle (1627-1691) had been asking for. Alchemical poetical language made chemistry very difficult and ambiguous. The only sad part of Lavoisier life was that it was cut off in the French Revolution when a radical journalist generated slander on Lavoisier that ended up in him being condemned to death. The presiding judge was said to have answered "The Republic has no need of scientists." to Lavoisier and so a great man was lost to chemistry.This book is the first "Modern" chemistry text ever written which included the discoveries up to 1789, when it was published. Any chemist of today will be able to understand the vast majority of the terminology used here since Lavoisier's terminology is still used today.
Here are a few topics he introduces and discuses in detail:
Ways and methods of extracting oxygen and hydrogen gas and methods of identification of these elements, how it was found that water was a compound, not an element; how oxygen is what we breathe (he did experiments in breathing in other works), oxygen's place in combustion of gases, liquids, and solids like charcoal and oil, how he coined the names "oxygen" and "hydrogen".
Other stuff you find in the book is how he coined the terms "alcohol", "acid", the derivation of the composition of air ("about 1/3 of the air is oxygen...") and water, a plea to transition into modern nomenclature of elements and the first modern list of the elements found in the Periodic Table, coining the suffixes of "-ic" as in "Nitric Acid" and "-ous" as in "Phosphorous Acid" a system of identifying acids and their compositions, also there is the experiment with water and the furnace that proved that Mass was never created or destroyed (others before Lavoisier had noticed that no significant change in weight occurred in other reactions), but is instead conserved in a closed system (Law of Conservation of Mass), fermentation of alcohols, combustibility of of metals and acids, Oxidation, systematically coining the term "Alkali" for substances, Distillation Methods, Specific Gravity, concept of Specific Heats and lots more that Chemists will be familiar with. Many of the terms in this book had already been in use in the Middle Ages and Antiquity, but Lavoisier made their usage more organized and systematic.
First Part: Composition of the Atmosphere and Water; Combustion of Air, Oils, and Other Gases; Neutral Salts and Minerals like Lime, Law of Conservation of Mass; How Substances Change Phases from Liquids to Solids and Liquids to Gases etc.; and Many Other Topics Discussed Along with the Experimental Procedures to Getting Lavoisier's Results.
Second Part: First Modern List of Chemical Elements; Tables of Acids and Appeals to a Systematic Nomenclature of Acidic Substances; Combustion and Observations of Salts and Acids; Along with Procedures for Experimentation with these Acids and Salts; and Many Other Topics
Third Part: Thorough Discussion of the Instrument's used in Experimentation Along with Extra Commentary on Related Experiments Along with Methods For Attaining Specific Gravities, Separation of Gases and Liquids, Specific Heats, Weight Differences, Fermentation, Evaporation, Crystallization, Oxidation of Metals, Combustion, Formation of Water; How to use Calorimeters and Furnaces; Condensation of Gases; and Many Other Topics
Appendix: Length Unit Conversion Tables; Thermal Unit Conversion Tables; Weight Conversion Tables; Methods of Determining Absolute Gravity; Pressure Unit Conversion Tables; and More
Truly a major contribution to Modern Science and especially Chemistry, this book deserves a wide audience.
For further reading on historical chemistry writings by notable chemists please read The Laws Of Gases: Memoirs By Robert Boyle And E. H. Amagat (1899) and The Sceptical Chymist (Chemistry) both By Robert Boyle and Mendeleev on the Periodic Law: Selected Writings, 1869 - 1905 By Dmitri Mendeleev and The Modern Theory Of Solution: Memoirs By Pfeffer, Van't Hoff Arrhenius And Raoult (1899) with almost complete papers of Raoult, Arrhenius and read Foundations Of The Atomic Theory: Comprising Papers And Extracts By John Dalton, William Hyde Wollaston And Thomas Thomson, 1802-1808 (1911) and Foundations Of The Molecular Theory: Comprising Papers And Extracts.
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The Analytical Theory of Heat Classic Reprint Joseph Fourier 9781332522484 Books Reviews
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743- 1794]) was a French nobleman and chemist who is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry."
He admits in the Preface to this 1789 book, “This science still has many chasms, which interrupt the series of facts, and often render ti extremely difficult to reconcile them with each other It has not, like the elements of geometry, the advantage of being a complete science, the parts of which are all closely connected together its actual progress, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the modern doctrine, have assumed so happy an arrangement, that we have ground to hope, even in our own times, to see it approach near to the highest state of perfection of which it is susceptible.” (Pg. xx) He adds, “The notion of the four elements, which, by the variety of their proportions, compose all the known substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis, assumed long before the first principles of experimental philosophy or of chemistry had any existence. In those days, without possessing facts, they framed systems; while we, who have collected facts, seem determined to reject them, when they do not agree with our prejudices. The authority of these fathers of human philosophy still carry great weight, and there is reason to fear that it will even bear hard upon generations to come.” (Pg. xxii)
He states, “Chemistry affords two general methods of determining the constituent principles of bodies, the method of analysis, and that of synthesis. When, for instance, by combining water with alcohol, we form the species liquor called, in commercial language, brandy or spirit of wine, we certainly have a right to conclude, that brandy, or spirit of wine, is composed of alcohol combined with water. We can produce the same result by the analytical method; and in general it ought to be considered as a principle in chemical science, never to rest satisfied without both these species of proofs.” (Pg. 33) He notes, “From these experiments, both analytical and synthetic, we may now affirm that we have ascertained, with as much certainty as is possible in physical or chemical subjects, that water is not a simple elementary substance, but is composed of two elements, oxygen and hydrogen; which elements, when existing separately, have so strong affinity for caloric, as only to subsist under the form of gas in the common temperature and pressure of our atmosphere.” (Pg. 95)
He challenges the supporters of the phlogiston theory, “It is the province of the advocates for this system to prove, by decisive experiments, the real existence of this combined hydrogen, which they have hitherto only done by conjectures founded upon suppositions.” (Pg. 114) Later, he adds, “Some very distinguished chemists… are of course obliged to suppose that hydrogen exists in all these substances, though they cannot prove their supposition; even if they could, it would not avail much, since this disengagement of hydrogen is quire insufficient to explain the phenomena of calcination and combustion… it belongs to those who make suppositions to prove them; and, doubtless, a doctrine which without any supposition explains the phenomena as well, and as naturally, as theirs does by supposition, has at least the advantage of greater simplicity.” (Pg. 200-201)
This book will be of great interest to students of the history of science.
Masterpiece
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Great material, however, the mathematical symbols are not showing up properly.
The Catholic Chemist, Antoine Lavoisier (1734 - 1794), was truly a revolutionary researcher and one of the first to come out completely from the ranks of Alchemy. Lavoisier continued to propagate and encourage for a systematic and uniform chemical language like precursors like Robert Boyle (1627-1691) had been asking for. Alchemical poetical language made chemistry very difficult and ambiguous. The only sad part of Lavoisier life was that it was cut off in the French Revolution when a radical journalist generated slander on Lavoisier that ended up in him being condemned to death. The presiding judge was said to have answered "The Republic has no need of scientists." to Lavoisier and so a great man was lost to chemistry.
This book is the first "Modern" chemistry text ever written which included the discoveries up to 1789, when it was published. Any chemist of today will be able to understand the vast majority of the terminology used here since Lavoisier's terminology is still used today.
Here are a few topics he introduces and discuses in detail
Ways and methods of extracting oxygen and hydrogen gas and methods of identification of these elements, how it was found that water was a compound, not an element; how oxygen is what we breathe (he did experiments in breathing in other works), oxygen's place in combustion of gases, liquids, and solids like charcoal and oil, how he coined the names "oxygen" and "hydrogen".
Other stuff you find in the book is how he coined the terms "alcohol", "acid", the derivation of the composition of air ("about 1/3 of the air is oxygen...") and water, a plea to transition into modern nomenclature of elements and the first modern list of the elements found in the Periodic Table, coining the suffixes of "-ic" as in "Nitric Acid" and "-ous" as in "Phosphorous Acid" a system of identifying acids and their compositions, also there is the experiment with water and the furnace that proved that Mass was never created or destroyed (others before Lavoisier had noticed that no significant change in weight occurred in other reactions), but is instead conserved in a closed system (Law of Conservation of Mass), fermentation of alcohols, combustibility of of metals and acids, Oxidation, systematically coining the term "Alkali" for substances, Distillation Methods, Specific Gravity, concept of Specific Heats and lots more that Chemists will be familiar with. Many of the terms in this book had already been in use in the Middle Ages and Antiquity, but Lavoisier made their usage more organized and systematic.
First Part Composition of the Atmosphere and Water; Combustion of Air, Oils, and Other Gases; Neutral Salts and Minerals like Lime, Law of Conservation of Mass; How Substances Change Phases from Liquids to Solids and Liquids to Gases etc.; and Many Other Topics Discussed Along with the Experimental Procedures to Getting Lavoisier's Results.
Second Part First Modern List of Chemical Elements; Tables of Acids and Appeals to a Systematic Nomenclature of Acidic Substances; Combustion and Observations of Salts and Acids; Along with Procedures for Experimentation with these Acids and Salts; and Many Other Topics
Third Part Thorough Discussion of the Instrument's used in Experimentation Along with Extra Commentary on Related Experiments Along with Methods For Attaining Specific Gravities, Separation of Gases and Liquids, Specific Heats, Weight Differences, Fermentation, Evaporation, Crystallization, Oxidation of Metals, Combustion, Formation of Water; How to use Calorimeters and Furnaces; Condensation of Gases; and Many Other Topics
Appendix Length Unit Conversion Tables; Thermal Unit Conversion Tables; Weight Conversion Tables; Methods of Determining Absolute Gravity; Pressure Unit Conversion Tables; and More
Truly a major contribution to Modern Science and especially Chemistry, this book deserves a wide audience.
For further reading on historical chemistry writings by notable chemists please read The Laws Of Gases Memoirs By Robert Boyle And E. H. Amagat (1899) and The Sceptical Chymist (Chemistry) both By Robert Boyle and Mendeleev on the Periodic Law Selected Writings, 1869 - 1905 By Dmitri Mendeleev and The Modern Theory Of Solution Memoirs By Pfeffer, Van't Hoff Arrhenius And Raoult (1899) with almost complete papers of Raoult, Arrhenius and read Foundations Of The Atomic Theory Comprising Papers And Extracts By John Dalton, William Hyde Wollaston And Thomas Thomson, 1802-1808 (1911) and Foundations Of The Molecular Theory Comprising Papers And Extracts.
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